Monday, September 30, 2019

Playtime

There's a scene where a Janitor comes out and Just tanks in place not knowing what to do because apparently the floor of the building is so clean that there's nothing else to clean. This shows us that their world or things they represent have to be perfect. By having a certain way to walk and the place being clean shows us that they have to represent professionalism. As we keep watching throughout the film we hear a baby cry but we don't see him/ her. The director tries to confuse us by showing a lady that looks like a nurse caring a baby but instead she's caring some towels.But as well shows us another lady walking her back towards us pushing something that looks like a stroller but Instead it's a baggage. This wont be the first or last time he will try to confuse us. As the film moves on, we see a bunch of tours ready to be guided to their destination. Someone goes and assists them but puts them Into two straight lines to not show sloppiness. As they're walking there way out Barbar a notices a dog barking but when she turns around to see where It's coming from the guy Is Just petting his baggage.As they get In the bus the director shows us another scene where Hullo looks new to the city. Hullo goes inside a building where he's supposed to search for someone. But within that search Hullo Is always getting lost or getting confused by a salesman. He studies the frames, chairs, and reflection of windows as If he has never seen those objects before. There are a lot of scenes where people are being framed and we as the audience are looking or hearing what the characters can't notice.For example as Hullo Is dating In a four glass room for the person he may speak to, we hear and see what's going around outside that glass room that he may not hear or see. As he searches for the guy we can see where he Is but Hullo can't. The reflection of the mirror confuses Hullo and leads him to different places loosing the guy again. There Is another sequence where construction work ers are putting up a glass but are being framed with another glass. The people from outside are watching them as If It were to be a show These parts of the film can relate to the reading of Badly Set. Selection 4. Playtime By Janitor her back towards us pushing something that looks like a stroller but instead it's a goes and assists them but puts them into two straight lines to not show sloppiness. As they're walking there way out Barbara notices a dog barking but when she turns around to see where it's coming from the guy is Just petting his baggage. As they get in the bus the director shows us another scene where Hullo looks new to the city. That search Hullo is always getting lost or getting confused by a salesman.He studies he frames, chairs, and reflection of windows as if he has never seen those objects are looking or hearing what the characters can't notice. For example as Hullo is waiting in a four glass room for the person he may speak to, we hear and see what's the guy we can see where he is but Hullo can't. The reflection of the mirror confuses Hullo and leads him to different places loosing the guy again. There is another with another glass. The people from outside are watching them as if it were to be a show These parts of the film can relate to the reading of Baddie Set. 4, selection 4.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Graphene Replaced with Copper

Graphene replaced with copper Graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity two orders of magnitude higher than copper Recent research into the properties of graphene nanoribbons provides two new reasons for using the material for interconnects in future computer chips. In widths as narrow as 16 nm, graphene has a current-carrying capacity approximately a thousand times greater than copper while providing improved thermal conductivity. The current-carrying and heat-transfer measurements were reported by a team of researchers from the Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, GA). The same team had previously reported measurements of resistivity in graphene that suggest the material’s conductance would outperform that of copper in future generations of nanometer-scale interconnects. The graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity two orders of magnitude higher than copper at these size scales, according to Raghunath Murali, a senior research engineer at Georgia Tech. {draw:frame} Composed of thin layers of graphite, graphene has been studied by the Georgia Tech team as a potential replacement for copper in on-chip interconnects wires. The graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity of more than 108 A/cm2, which makes them very robust in resisting electromigration and should greatly improve chip reliability. This electromigration phenomenon causes transport of material, especially at high-current density and leads to a break in the wire and, consequently, chip failure. The research team also discovered that the graphene nanoribbons also have excellent thermal conductivity properties and can conduct heat away from devices. They found that graphene nanoribbons have a thermal conductivity of more than 1,000 W/m Kelvin for structures less than 20 nm wide. This will help the interconnects serve as heat spreaders in future generations of integrated circuits, according to Murali. They used electron beam lithography to construct four electrode contacts, then used lithography to fabricate devices consisting of parallel nanoribbons of widths ranging between 16 and 52 nm and lengths of between 0. 2 and 1  µm. The breakdown current density of the nanoribbons was then studied by slowly applying an increasing amount of current to the electrodes on either side of the parallel nanoribbons. A drop in current flow indicated the breakdown of one or more of the nanoribbons. In the study of 21 test devices, the researchers found that the breakdown current density of graphene nanoribbons has a reciprocal relationship to the resistivity. Because graphene can be patterned using conventional chip-making processes, manufacturers could make the transition from copper to graphene without a drastic change in chip fabrication. The data they developed so far look very promising for using this material as the basis for future on-chip interconnects. Visit www. youtube. com/watch? v=kd6zzwhfEqw to view a video explaining graphene’s thermal-conductivity capabilities. Though one of graphene’s key properties is reported to be ballistic transport—meaning electrons can flow through it without resistance—the material’s actual conductance is limited by factors that include scattering from impurities, line-edge roughness and from substrate phonons—vibrations in the substrate lattice. Use of graphene interconnects could help facilitate continuing increases in integrated circuit performance once features sizes drop to approximately 20 nanometers, which could happen in the next five years, researchers said. At that scale, the increased resistance of copper interconnects could offset performance increases, meaning that without other improvements, higher density wouldn’t produce faster integrated circuits. This is not a roadblock to achieving scaling from one generation to the next, but it is a roadblock to achieving increased performance. Dimensional scaling could continue, but because we would be giving up so much in terms of resistivity, we wouldn’t get a performance advantage from that. That’s the problem we hope to solve by switching to a different materials system for interconnects Survey in graphene replaced with copper PORTLAND, Ore. —Graphene will carry nearly 1,000-times more current and run over 10-times cooler than conventional copper interconnects below 22-nanometer line widths, according to researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). The speed (electron mobility) of graphene has already been touted as better than copper, but this Georgia Tech data on nanoribbons as small as 16-nanometers quantifies just how superior carbon is to copper. The graphene nanoribbons tested at Georgia Tech could carry as much as 10 billion amps per square centimeter—nearly a thousand times greater than copper. â€Å"No one had measured graphene's current carrying capacity before this,† said Raghunath Murali, a senior research engineer in Georgia Tech's Nanotechnology Research Center. One possible reason that this property of graphene was not touted before is that there were no experimental results until our work. † The superior current carrying capability of carbon formed into graphene nanoribbons is also combined with less heat build-up, since carbon's thermal conductivity is much higher than copper. Nanoribbons have a thermal conductivity of 1,000-to-5000 watts per meter Kelvin—ten times greater than copper . The Georgia Tech researchers also claim that graphene nanoribbons will mitigate electro-migration which is an increasing problem for copper as line widths descend to the nanoscale. If the current carried through a wire is close to the current-carrying capacity of the wire, then the chances of electromigration are greater than if the current in the wire is much smaller than the current-carrying capacity,† said Murali. â€Å"Graphene has over two orders of magnitude greater capacity than copper, thus if a graphene wire is compared to a copper wire carrying the same current, then the graphene wire will better resist electromigration. † Murali's team obtained their graphene samples by removing layers from a graphite block and depositing them on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. E-beam lithograhy was used to construct the metal contacts and cut the parallel lines of graphene into lines 16-to-52 nanometers wide and 200-to-1000 nanometers long. There are three hurdles remaining to commercialization of carbon interrconnects, according to the researchers at Georgia Tech: perfecting methods of growing monolayers of graphene over entire wafers (since today only small centimeter-sized areas can be easiliy grown in monolayers), fabricating vias to interrconnect graphene nanowires, and integration of carbon into the back-end of process on a CMOS line. Murali performed the work with fellow researchers Yinxiao Yang, Kevin Brenner, Thomas Beck and James Meindl. This research was funded by the Semiconductor Research Corporation, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the Interconnect Focus Center, the Nanoelectronics Research Initiative and the Institute for Nanoelectronics Discovery and Exploration (INDEX). Replacing silicon {draw:frame} Silicon transisitors are approaching the point where further miniturization will no longer be possible. It is expected that once silicon transistors reach 16nm size, optical lithography will no longer be capable of making smaller images. Thus, unless all preogress in transistor size is terminated and performance improvements are limited to processor architecture alone, it is very likely that chip manufacturers will move to graphene as a way to get smaller transisitors. One example is that graphene transistors are very â€Å"leaky† compared to those made of silicon- that is, more charge can escape from them. This means that graphene chips are likely to run much hotter than silicon chips. Graphene has several very appealing traits. Electrons meet much less resistance from graphene than they do from silicon, traveling through it more than 100 times as easily. And because graphene is essentially a two-dimensional material, building smaller devices with it and controlling the flow of electricity within them are easier than with three-dimensional alternatives like silicon transistors. The finding underscores graphene's potential for serving as an excellent electronic material, such as silicon, that can be used to develop new kinds of transistors based on quantum physics. Because they encounter no obstacles, the electrons in graphene roam freely across the sheet of carbon, conducting electric charge with extremely low resistance. The research team, led by Chun Ning (Jeanie) Lau, found that the electrons in graphene are reflected back by the only obstacle they meet: graphene's boundaries. â€Å"These electrons meet no other obstacles and behave like quantum billiard balls. â€Å"They display properties that resemble both particles and waves. † when the electrons are reflected from one of the boundaries of graphene, the original and reflected components of the electron can interfere with each other, the way outgoing ripples in a pond might interfere with ripples reflected back from the banks. he â€Å"electronic interference† by measuring graphene's electrical conductivity at extremely low (0. 26 Kelvin) temperatures. She explained that at such low temperatures the quantum properties of electrons can be studied more easily. The electrons in graphene can display wave-like properties, which could lead to interesting applications such as ballistic transistors, which is a new type of transistor, as w ell as resonant cavities for electrons, that a resonant cavity is a chamber, like a kitchen microwave, in which waves can bounce back and forth. Scientifically, it has become a new odel system for condensed-matter physics, the branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of solid materials. Graphene enables table-top experimental tests of a number of phenomena in physics involving quantum mechanics and relativity. Bearing excellent material properties, such as high current-carrying capacity and thermal conductivity, graphene ideally is suited for creating components for semiconductor circuits and computers comparing with silicon. Its planar geometry allows the fabrication of electronic devices and the tailoring of a variety of electrical properties. Because it is only one-atom thick, it can potentially be used to make ultra-small devices and further miniaturize electronics. Image shows graphene, which can act as an atomic-scale billiard table, with electric charges acting as billiard balls. (Credit: Lau lab, UC-Riverside) Silicon has been the main ingredient in microchips since they replaced vacuum tubes in electronics. But the common element graphene, found in pencils, may one day supplant silicon on the billion-dollar foundries of IBM, Intel and AMD. Graphene shares the characteristics that make silicon so ubiquitous, not just in computers and cell phones, but in such applications as medical and aviation sensors, ultrahigh-frequency analog electronics for preparing signals for fiber-optic transmission or for radars. Graphene can do what silicon can, only better. Graphene has extraordinary electron-transport properties; its monolayer thickness yields exquisite sensitivity to changes in environment, and its mechanical and thermal properties equal or exceed those of the best conventional materials. The superior properties of graphene and graphene-related materials present an extraordinary opportunity for enabling new classes of electronic, optoelectronic and electromechanical devices and sensors The first commercial use for graphene may be as an electrical coating for LCD screens, solar cells, and touch screens. Thin, transparent, extremely conductive, and strong, it seems ideal for the job. ONE OF THE APPLICATION Graphene Quilts to Keep Things Cool December 21, 2009 {draw:frame} Graphene University of California, Riverside (UCR) Professor of Electrical Engineering and Chair of Materials Science and Engineering Alexander Balandin is leading several projects to explore ways to use the unique capabilities of graphene â€Å"quilts† as heat conductors in high-power electronics. Graphene is a recently discovered single-atom-thick carbon crystal, which reveals many unique properties. In Balandin’s designs, graphene â€Å"quilts† (large-area overlapping networks of graphene flakes) will play quite an opposite role of your grandma’s quilts. They will remove heat instead of retaining it. His work on graphene heat-conducting coats for heat removal from high-power gallium-nitride transistors is being funded by a recently awarded $420,000 grant from U. S. Office of Naval Research (ONR). It aims at an experimental proof-of-concept demonstration to be conducted in Balandin’s Nano-Device Laboratory (NDL). In addition to the ONR grant, Balandin received a new three-year subcontract with the Interconnect Focus Center (IFC), based at the Georgia Institute of Technology, that deals with graphene interconnects and heat spreaders for three-dimensional (3-D) electronics. According to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, in the next five years, up to 80 percent of microprocessor power will be consumed by the interconnect wiring—a driver for the search for new interconnect materials and innovative methods of heat removal. Another recent subcontract awarded to Balandin is with the Functional Engineered Nano Architectonics (FENA) center based at UCLA. In this center, he investigates the problems of energy dissipation in graphene nanostructures and nanodevices. Combined new funding secured by Balandin this month for the three projects exceeds $1 million. The centers’ funding comes from the Semiconductor Research Corporation (SRC) and Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA). Because graphene is only one molecule thick, it didn’t lend itself to traditional methods of thermal conductivity measurement. Balandin led a team of researchers that first measured it using an original non-conventional technique in 2008. The procedure involved a non-contact approach on the basis of Raman spectroscopy utilizing the inelastic scattering of photons (light) by phonons (crystal vibrations). The power dissipated in graphene and corresponding temperature rise were detected by extremely small shifts in the wavelength of the light scattered from graphene. That was sufficient to extract the values of the thermal conductivity through an elaborate mathematical procedure. Balandin’s research group discovered that the thermal conductivity of large suspended graphene sheets varies in the range from about 3000 to 5300 W/mK (watts per meter per degree Kelvin) near room temperature. These are very high values, which exceed those of carbon nanotubes (3,000-3,500 W/mK) and diamond (1,000-2,200 W/mK). As a result of his findings, Balandin has proposed several innovative graphene-based approaches for thermal management , which might lead to creation of a new technology for local cooling and hot-spot spreading in the high-power-density and ultra-fast chips. A detailed description of Balandin’s graphene and thermal management research can be found in his invited popular science article, â€Å"Chill Out,† in the October 2009 issue of IEEE Spectrum, the magazine of the The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE).

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Economist Skills Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economist Skills - Case Study Example Entering a supervisory role means that one gives up some of the task orientation and gets involved in the planning aspects of the tasks at hand. Rather than being given the daily tasks to perform, as on the line, the supervisor must deal with the constraints (number of people, amount of time, budget) and the requirements (production quantity, quality). Add to this the human management aspects of the job upward. Whereas the plant manager is a distant figure to the people on the line, not sharing the pressures and difficulties of the job, he is more direct and confrontational with his/her supervisors, as they are the first-line managers responsible for getting things done. Managing upwards for Joe means that he must fit the requirements of the company and his capacities to complete them with the people he has. Like an Army lieutenant climbing over the foxhole, he knows that the ultimate goal is not just the next foxhole, but a broader battle plan that he may or may not choose to communicate with his employees. Joe must manage expectations upward. That means that if upper management is asking him to do something for which he doesn't have the resources (e.g. capital equipment, training of his people, time or expertise), Joe must communicate that clearly with management and come to a mutually-satisfying conclusion. The usual pattern on manufactu... In addition, the supervisor moves from top player to coach: rather than carrying out the tasks himself, he must teach those who must do the actual production. It's said that the best coaches are those who were just average players in their sport. Vince Lombardi played professional football with just average results, but he excelled as a coach. The reason for the difference is that coaches understand how to reach down to the mid-performing line worker and motivate him/her to excel. There are any number of ways that Joe could have failed as a first-line manager: He failed to communicate the needs of upper management to the production team, thus failing to give an adequate picture of what was expected, or He did not act as a buffer, or translator, of upper-management wishes. Sometimes the first-line manager will communicate the tension and insecurity of upper management without giving adequate translation into the tasks that need to be completed. He could have failed to supply enough information to give his team members an insight as to why the decisions on production levels, quality and other factors were being asked of them. His production team members were looking to Joe for leadership, not camaraderie. Joe may have found that the tools he used before (being a nice guy, getting along) are different than those he needs now to succeed (providing direction and feedback). How Might This Have Been Avoided Management clearly failed Joe in two key ways: 1. They should have assessed Joe on his leadership qualities, not his ability to perform his work on the line. 2. They should have provided Joe with the management tools he needed in order to succeed, including training, coaching and feedback. Bibliography Berger, D., n.d., It's All About the People, Plant

Friday, September 27, 2019

International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 4

International Business - Essay Example The airline grew at a faster rate through the acquisition of new planes and expanded route offerings that were made more appealing through such initiatives as frequent flyer program and business class seats. Despite the rise in the number of passengers, Ryanair continued to make losses due to the fact that it offered low fares though it was not a low-cost airline. As competition soared in the airline industry, the competing airlines, Ryanair was forced to lower their prices even further and eliminating the costly routes and increasing presence in the profitable routes. Through flying to regional airports that have lower costs of landing and faster turnaround times, Ryanair started attaining profitability through offering cheap flights across Europe. The cheap flights were obtainable through the elimination of free meals during flights that led the company to improve their profitability in successive years. In 1997, Ryanair put on offer an IPO that managed to raise it a lot of capital that made it easier for it to acquire other aircraft thus increasing its fleet. In the year 2000, Ryanair started making its bookings online that made it increase the number of passengers that it transferred across destinations. ... Amidst intermittent performances in the year 2009, Ryanair made other strategic changes aimed at reducing costs such as elimination of check-ins in favour of baggage drops that returned it to profitability (Ryanair. n.d). With time, the company has been able to make several strides as regards profitability albeit with numerous challenges and obstacles. Currently, Ryanair is the most favoured airline in the world with bases in forty one airports operating across twenty six countries with over two hundred aircraft transporting about 80 million passengers in the year 2010/2011. As at the moment, it prides itself as having the cheapest air ticket as compared to its competitors namely easy Jet and Aer Lingus and this has contributed to its profits to grow by an average of 25% that totals about 503 million Euros. Market Entry Strategies adopted by Ryanair Ryanair embarked on adopting certain market entry strategies aimed at positioning itself as the leading low-cost flight in Europe throug h continuous improvement of its services and route offerings. Therefore its main objective was to offer low fares that can translate to increased flow of passengers that is aimed at containing the costs as well as reducing the costs of operation. Through offering low fares, Ryanair was able to stimulate demand that may be derived from those that are aimed at those that are conscious of the fares they pay or those who may opt for alternative modes of travel. To achieve this, it offers its tickets through travel on a one-way basis thus minimizing requirements that may be pegged on the basis of stay requirements. Ryanair sets fares or travel costs on the basis of demand requirements of specific flights and in reference to

Thursday, September 26, 2019

The Essence of Humanism Seen Through the Villa Rotunda Essay

The Essence of Humanism Seen Through the Villa Rotunda - Essay Example The Renaissance period also gave birth to the phenomenon of learning from the nature that became the base for the revival of classical letter and teachings. This ideology was backed by the belief that these learning can guide the humans towards the right path of the life. The humanism theorists believe that the human being can seek for assistance from nature in each and every facet of their lives. When it comes to arts, the humanists believe that an artist should reflect the perfection and balance that he found in different creatures of nature. In this way, an artist can also emulate the perfection and balanced beauty of the natural creations (Petrosyan, 1972, p98). The main objective of the following discussion is to explore the humanism through the analysis of an architectural work done during the Renaissance period. In this regard, the essay strives to explore the essence of humanism in one of the finest buildings of Renaissance period; Villa Rotunda that was built by an eminent humanist architect of that time Andrea Palladio who was the chief architect of Venetian Republic. This building is chosen because Palladio is among the prominent humanists of his age and the focus upon one of his major accomplishment could be a significant way to apprehend the values of humanism reflected through the art pieces. Palladio was among the most influential architects of the Renaissance era whose work is a great source of inspiration even for the architects of modern time (Hopkins, 2002, p43). He has designed twenty villas in Venetian Mainland during his lifetime and almost all of them are regarded as beautiful example of renaissance arts; however, the vill a rotunda possesses a distinguished position among all of his works and it has been regarded as the finest and subtle artwork of Palladio that is alive even after centuries (Howard and Deborah, 1980, p224).

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Pervasive Decision VA9-02166 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pervasive Decision VA9-02166 - Essay Example The use of words like "durable," "effective" or "meaningful" are only helpful when anyone wants to keep only question in mind (Oxman-Martinez et al., 2005), and hence the only test, that can be derived from the definition of Convention Refugee in Section 2 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act does the claimant now have a well-founded and genuine fear of persecution? After considering all the circumstances, the young Tamil male faced in connection to fetching LTTE information by the Sri Lankan army, paramilitary agencies and the government, the claimant filed a claim of refugee status seeking protection from the mentioned forces of Sri Lanka (LaViolette, 2004). Section 97(1)(b)(ii) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act states that the protection is limited to the claimants who face some specific risks that are not faced generally by other people in or from the country and thus, the claimant is not a person in need of protection (Dauvergne, 2003). In this instance, even though the war of September 2006 is over and situation is different in Sri Lanka, that does not favor Refugee Protection Act, so the young Tamil man should receive protection (Kruger, Mulder & Korenic, 2004). The Members of the justice panel must take the new evidences under consideration available from the current year of 2009 where even though the situation is different, the situation of the young Tamil male is no different. Hence, the paramilitary agencies, Sri Lankan army and government officials need to reconsider their belief that the young male belongs to the LTTE group. Amnesty International Report 2010, pp. 301-303 and Item 2.3. United Kingdom (UK). 22 October 2009. Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and Home Office. Report of Information Gathering Visit to Colombo, Sri Lanka 23-29 August 2009 (PDF, 215 KB). Oxman-Martinez, J., Hanley, J., Lach, L.,

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Edit Submission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Edit Submission - Essay Example e common in the interaction with the political figures has been addressed by the numerous political forums that are available on the social media and networks. The grievances and complaints of the citizens of any country can be expressed to the officials in a far more reliable and fast manner than before. The emergence of any news on the web is analogous to fire in a dry forest in the modern times. Any act of misconduct by the government cannot be hidden since people have acquired greater power to voice their opinions with the advent of the internet. The recent uprising in the Arab countries, such as Egypt, Libya, could not have been arranged with such unity and effectiveness if the social media and networks had not been available. The risings were led by no apparent leaders but at the spur of collective thinking and ideas. The dictatorial nature of the leadership in those countries always forbade any expression of negativity towards the rulers; however the accumulation of agitation among the masses on the web transformed into a historical revolution that freed the people from years of dictatorship. The citizens are more aware about the prevailing political activities which make them capable of possessing a strong opinion about everything in their societies. These opinions are known to gain voice on the political forums which can prove to influence the core objectives of the political parties. Democratic parties tend to rely on such internet communication even more than dictatorial rule. Specifically, the communication and campaigning is noticed to escalate in the times of the elections. An apparent benefit of political communication over the internet is that the political parties can evaluate the responses and comments of their voters and strategize their actions accordingly. This proves to become an on-going survey for the political parties since the success or failure of any event or procedure can be retrieved on an immediate basis via social

Monday, September 23, 2019

The Influence of the Media on Politics in America Research Paper

The Influence of the Media on Politics in America - Research Paper Example This is all the more relevant because the voter turnout in America has always been less than half of the total number of voters (Denton and Woodward, pp.1). So, what is interesting to probe, along with all the other aspects of the relationship between media and politics, is whether the television or new media have any role in voter turnout or voter behavior. The mutual dynamics between media and public life has come under scrutiny in many research works. Craig (2004, pp.3) has put forth the idea that â€Å"media are an indissoluble part of the contexts, the messages and the relationships that create and give shape to politics and public life.† In other words, one can say that though the public life had existed even centuries before the new media forms were born, once the mass media came into being, they have become part of the rich social fabric from which the political processes emerge as consequences. Here, politics is defined as â€Å"a specific sphere of society incorporating the workings of formal institutions and their legal relationships† on one side, and on the other, the term is defined to represent the â€Å"struggle over the values that inform all social relations† by Craig (2004, pp.24). To make functional any element of this process, communication is an inevitable factor and this is where the role of media becomes crucial. From cave drawings and social orator ship to internet and ICT-enabled new media, in all formats, media have supported the political processes, whether it has negative or positive consequences for the society, as a whole. It is also observed that media is not merely an onlooker and reporter of social events or a simple fictional entertainer, but has a mediating role to play in the society (Craig, 2004, pp.3). And most importantly, it is this mediating role that determines to an extent, the political life of the society (Craig, 2004, pp.4). During Gulf War and William

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Civil and Criminal Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Civil and Criminal Practice - Essay Example As I was crossing the road, I was knocked over by a car that was driving too fast and in my opinion, in excess of the statutory speed limit. 1.7. Since the accident, the Defendant has been convicted of a road traffic offence under section 4 of the Road Traffic Accidents Act 1988 for driving or being in charge when under the influence of drink1. I have been provided with the incident number, which is 0191565B. 1.7. Since the accident, I have been out of work for four months as a direct result of injuries suffered and wish to make a claim for compensation against the Defendant in respect of my injury and loss of income arising from the accident. This memorandum sets out my advice regarding the determination of a reasonable success fee in the proposed conditional fee agreement for the legal representation of Mark Jameson’s claim against the defendant Brian Platt for personal injury and loss of earnings. The success fee can be as high as 100% of the time2 charge of normal costs of legal representation and the manner in which the recommended success fee percentage has been calculated in Mr Jameson’s case is based on my risks analysis assessment of the case, which includes the following: There doesn’t appear to be any issue regarding fault liability in the case and this is further bolstered by the defendant’s conviction under section 4 of the Road Traffic Accidents Act 1988 for driving under the influence of alcohol. Furthermore, as a direct result of the accident, Mr Jameson was hospitalised for two days and suffered a broken ankle, two fractured ribs and nervous shock and we have a detailed hospital report and independent medical report to verify that Mr Jameson’s injuries were directly caused by the accident4. As such, the merits of the claim are not in contention and there is a strong likelihood of success at trial. With regard to the value of the claim, Mr Jameson has been unable to work for four months as a direct result of injuries caused by

Saturday, September 21, 2019

The Concept of Human Rights Essay Example for Free

The Concept of Human Rights Essay During the Second World War, the most horrific massacre took place; committed by the Nazi regime, killing millions of innocent people. The world could not believe this inhuman event occurred. â€Å"They felt like a war could no longer be used as an excuse to commit crimes against humanity†. (unac. org) it was a decision that was made across universal lines that the infringement of Human Right will no longer be accepted, and we will unite as one to establish a declaration of Human Rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created and signed on December 10, 1948, there was legislatives from 48 countries who came together at the United Nations in Paris who believed in the value and respect for human life. (unac. org) After several drafts and much debate, the final version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) emerged. The (UDHR) was a list of primary privileges that the worldwide group decided were equal and just for all humans. (unac. rg) The list of human rights consisted of six categories such as Political Rights, the right to vote, the right to citizenship and to participate in government. Liberty Rights: the right to freedom of opinion and expression; Equality Rights: the right to be free from discrimination; Economic Rights: the right to fair wages and safe working conditions; Social Rights: the right to education and to adequate health care; Security Rights: protect people against crimes such as murder, massacre, torture, and rape. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Human rights is definitely NOT a static concept, it’s a dynamic concept, because counties, people and circumstances change and because was establish different values over time. For example the issues on gay rights, which were not and concern in 1948 as it is now that more gays are coming out and demanding the same right as everyone else regard marriage and equality. Also, now global warming and the environment is an issue among many counties there is a demand for the right to a clean environment. According Professor Philip Alston, Chairman of the UN Committee. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights can have extensions added it, but the original declaration cannot be changed. Therefore, we will continue to develop Human rights in America and across the globe. It will be a slow process as issues arise, but it is necessary to make this world a better place for all human beings.

Friday, September 20, 2019

The Death Penalty Pros And Cons Philosophy Essay

The Death Penalty Pros And Cons Philosophy Essay Death penalty has been a topic of concern throughout the world by large. Different countries and different societal communities have reservations or have believed that death penalty is just (acceptable). Many authors have published books on the debate on death penalty in the light of law and order. Death penalty which is often hailed as Capital Punishment, is a thought-out and designed execution of human life by government in reaction to a crime done by that convict. There has been an ongoing argument debating this matter, such as Amnesty International considers that The death penalty is the ultimate denial of human rights. It is premeditated and cold-blooded killing of a human being by the state in the name of justice. It violates the right to life; it is the ultimate cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment. There can never be any justification for torture or for cruel treatment. In an opposing argument to the above statement for death penalty, the Clark County Indiana Prosecuting Attorney says that there are some defendants who have earned the ultimate punishment our society has to offer by committing murder with aggravating circumstances present. I believe life is sacred. It cheapens the life of an innocent murder victim to say that society has no rights to keep the murderer from ever killing again. In my view, society has not only the right, but the duty to act in self defense to protect the innocent. Murdering Myths: the Story behind the Death Penalty a book by Judith W. Kay, focuses on debate that Americans contributes to a counteract-dynamism idea of justice, i.e. punishment corrects bad behavior. Sufferings disburse for wrong actions, and a victims wish for vengeance is quiet understandable and usual. She had an interview with both victims and convict, and she concluded that how this credence harms executors, victims and society and calls for a latest plot that identifies humanity in all of us. The narrative about the bad guys becomes joined with at first reluctantly, and later carelessly, contribution in various disciplinary practices, which together put the carry out of punishment afar balanced debate. Two unremitting deformations in image seem to be made, one by liberals and another by conservatives. Liberals be apt to see offenders as victims of bad society. Vicious persecution certainly is frequently the practice of murder ­ers. Liberals, though, make a mistake in seeing the humanity of the criminal without seeing the enduring effects of such brutalization. Liberals tend to under ­play the murderers resulting in brutal and risky habits, frankly assuming that an better environment will be satisfactory for the murderers rehabili ­tation. Because liberals see the community as at least partially accountable for producing violent criminals, liberals tend to get into the idea that criminals are victims too. Liberals fall short to see the culprits possible cleverness and in ­tegrity as well as his addition to his brutal habits. They go wrong by letting mur ­derers get away with Twinkie defenses, failing to grasp treacherous people guilty for their crimes. Liberals, with their single focal point, are scorned as bleeding hearts and soft on crime. Liberals are blamed of supporting the untimely release of treacherous criminals, turning a blind eye to the pain of vic ­tims and their families. Another mistake is made by conservatives, who lessen the criminals to embodiments of the most terrible things they ever did; misdeeds become uniqueness. Despite of merely disapproving evil behavior, conservatives criticize certain people as basically evil by underplaying the communitys accountability for infusing people with the same disciplinary, revengeful, and brutal motives that force the criminal justice system. Unwilling to name and criticize the dehu ­manizing social experiences that formed a human with the nature to devastate and kill, they blame persons as if their difficulties leaped from nowhere. Conservatives are blamed of being naive, classifying different hu ­mans as either entirely fine or wicked. The Death Penalty in America: Current Controversies by Hugo Adam Bedau; is the most detailed book that focuses on the death penalty, discussing its pros and cons which gets a massive attention of the world. Considering this volume, one view can emerge that undeniably, criminals who commit dreadful offenses deserve to be a contender of capital punishment. There should be no disagreement there. In ones observation, child molesters, killers and rapists have lost their lawful right to live in our society. It should be worried that a horrible deed must not be warranted under any situation; if a criminal has had a hard youth, this cannot justify. Let alone give reason for his actions. This is unquestionable, as is renowned, mentally ill are usually cunning, dangerous, scheming, self-absorbed and amiable. Moreover, they are unable to feel guiltiness and regret. Psychoanalysis is effectual in some cases but in most cases it does not work. Disreputable criminals are recognized for their deter ioration into felony upon discharge. Criminals can often mislead their psychiatrists because they are calculative and astute. Consequently, capital punishment is the most positive punishment next to life sentence. Several problems can occur with the capital punishment, such as ethical matters and guiltless lives being put to death, which possibly shouldnt. For instance, there is much more that requires to be completed prior to the preliminary action happens. This explains that there are steps that need to be apparent and proper evident on the suspect in accusation. For that reason, the new expertise that has been offered to people, for instance, DNA test system, a lot of faults must not be made in these critical verdicts. New expertise must be worn as a definite approach that the judgment to capital punishment is correct. Many people think that the capital punishment is honorably incorrect since they believe that only God ought to have the ultimate authority in death penalty. This brings up that the death penalty is only a type of brutal and unusual punishment. Consequently, they consider that the convict must not be penalized with death, still however; the verdicts had no leniency on their victim. For instance, in mid-summer of 1999, Allan Lee Davis was electrocuted in the Florida electric chair. Throughout the moment in time of his execution he undergone a blood loss and snapshots were sent all over the Internet. This illustrated and helped ones against death penalty, proving it to be a form of cruel and unusual punishment. In recent times the Supreme Court has decided to evaluate all electric chairs to observe whether or not it is a type of physical brutality, defacement, and or suffering. At the moment there are continually somewhat a small number of types of urbane forms to execute. There are poisonous injection, electric chair, gas, hanged execution, and gunfire. The majority of people think poisonous injection must be the only type of death penalty. In general, death penalty looks like the single way to guarantee convicts that the justice method is bona fide. This will permit the convicts to see the penalty of ending the lives of innocents. This technique will guarantee that they will not commit murder again. Is the Death Penalty Cruel and Unusual Punishment? One can consider the death penalty to be is too harsh in some case; however the U.S. do consent the Capital punishment in various cases. Whether the capital punishment will be obligated is reliant on the state in which one lives, since a large number of convicted cases are tried footed on state bylaws. For some cases so as to make it to the federal level there are unusual examples where the capital punishment can be forced. One of the cases is Daryl Reynard Atkins, who went on track that leads to death pit on the date of August 16, 1996. He and his friend William Jones make off with Eric Nesbitt and robbed him with a semi-automatic pistol. Atkins and Jones took all the cash Nesbitt had on his self, and then drove him off to an automated teller machine (ATM). At the same time as there, they were caught on camera pushing him off to withdraw more cash. Later than receiving the further cash, they drove Nesbitt to a remote locality and murdered him by bursting off eight shots of gunfire on him. Atkins was convicted of abduction, robbery by aimed weapon, and capital kill and was concluded to the judgment of capital punishment. Both Jones and Atkins bear out in the guiltiness phase of the Atkins trial. They each confirmed the event, but varied on whom really shot and murdered Nesbitt. Jones, whose statement was more reasoned and convincing to the panel of judges than the psychologically retarded Atkins, allowed the jury to criminalize Atkins and blame him for the killing. For the duration of the punishment stage of the trial, the state brought in the victim-impact proof and verified two infuriating situations to press on for the capital punishment. The state proved to the board of judges that Atkins posed a future risk for the reason that of his preceding crime convictions. Additionally, the state called four victims of previous robberies and physical attacks to give evidence against Atkins. In addition, the state proved the vileness of the offense by spotting to the films of the deceaseds body and the autopsy report, which were element of the early trial testimony. Dr. Evan Nelson, a forensic psychologist, gave evidence in the punishment phase that based on his assessment of Atkins, he was mildly mentally retarded. He testified that after evaluating Atkins school and court records and additionally administering a typical intelligence test, Atkins had a full scale IQ of 59 and was working anywhere between the ages of 9 and 12. Founded on this testimony, the jury sentenced Atkins to Capital punishment, but the Virginia Supreme Court ordered a subsequent sentencing trial because the trial court used a deceptive judgment form. At the following sentencing trial, the similar forensic psychologist gave evidence, but extra proof was added for the state by specialist observer Dr. Stanton Samenow, who said that Atkins was not mentally retarded, but was of average intelligence, at slightest and diagnosable as having disruptive character disorder. The panel of judges again sentenced Atkins to death. Subsequent to the second sentencing trial, the Virginia Supreme Court confirmed the imposition of the capital punishment. Atkins did not debate facing the Virginia Supreme Court that his sentence was inconsistent to penalties forced for comparable crimes in Virginia, but he did assert he is mentally retarded and thus cannot be sentenced to death. The Virginia Supreme Court refused his petition, saying it was not willing to commute Atkins verdict of death to life sentence simply for the reason that of his IQ score. Two Virginia justices dissented; saying that they casted off Dr. Samenows view that Atkins possesses usual aptitude as incredulous as a matter of law, and accomplished that the imposition of the sentence of death upon a criminal defendant who has the mental age of a child between the ages of 9 and 12 is excessive. In their disagreement, they said it is indefensible to conclude that individuals who are mentally retarded are not to some degree less culpable for their criminal acts. By definition, such individuals have substantial limitations not shared by the general population. A moral and civilized society diminishes itself if its system of justice does not afford recognition and consideration of those limitations in a meaningful way. Whereas in a 1989 trial, Penry v. Lynaugh, the United States Supreme Court did regulated that people with psychological retardation could be penalized to capital punishment, numerous states have in view of the fact that distorted their laws on this matter. The United States Supreme Court decided to take notice of Atkins appeal in 2002 given that of the dramatic change in the situation of state legislatures during the preceding 13 years. Throughout the years, the United States Supreme Court has detained that judging whether penalty is extreme is not based on principles that succeeded when the Bill of Rights was approved, but somewhat by those that at present overcome. Consequently, in influencing whether penalties are cruel and unusual the Supreme Court looks to present day standards placed by current legislatures. In 1989, while the Supreme Court last looked at the matter of ruling mentally retarded people to death penalty, the majority states did permit that. In 2002, when the Supreme Court determined to re-examine the matter, the political winds had distorted and state legislatures were deciding not in favor of the death penalty in cases relating people with mental retardation. So the justices upturned Penry and ruled in favor of Atkins, upturned the Virginia Supreme Court, and remanded the case back to the subordinate courts for more verdicts. The 6 to 3 decision that the capital punishment for Atkins was cruel and unusual punishment, was written by Justice John Paul Stevens, who was coupled by Justices Breyer, Ginsburg, Kennedy, OConnor, and Souter. Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote a dissenting view and was joined by Justices Scalia and Thomas. Scalia also wrote a dissenting judgment and was joined by Rehnquist and Thomas. In writing for the Court, Stevens said: Those mentally retarded persons who meet the laws requirements for criminal responsibility should be tried and punished when they commit crimes. Because of their disabilities in areas of reasoning, judgment, and control of their impulses, however, they do not act with the level of moral culpability that characterizes the most serious adult criminal conduct. Moreover, their impairments can jeopardize the reliability and fairness of capital proceedings against mentally retarded defendants. Presumably for these reasons, in the 13 years since we decided Penry v. Lynaugh, (1989), the American public, legislators, scholars, and judges have deliberated over the question whether the death penalty should ever be imposed on a mentally retarded criminal. The consensus reflected in those deliberations informs our answer to the question presented by this case: whether such executions are cruel and unusual punishments prohibited by the Eighth Amendment to the Federal Constitution. In writing his dissent, Chief Justice Rehnquist said: There are strong reasons for limiting our inquiry into what constitutes an evolving standard of decency under the Eighth Amendment to the laws passed by legislatures and the practices of sentencing juries in America. Here, the Court goes beyond these well-established objective indicators of contemporary values. It finds further support to [its] conclusion that a national consensus has developed against imposing the death penalty on all mentally retarded defendants in international opinion, the views of professional and religious organizations, and opinion polls not demonstrated to be reliable à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Believing this view to be seriously mistaken, I dissent. Justice Scalia added in his dissent, This newest innovation promises to be more effective than any of the others in turning the process of capital trial into a game. How this competition will be played out will be seen in upcoming capital punishment cases that determine their way to the Supreme Court. Should the Death Penalty exist? At present the argument on the legitimacy of the Capital punishment continues. Current court decisions have ruled that a death sentence for rape and kidnapping as it was excessive for the crime and thus unconstitutional (Everheart v. Georgia 1977). The Court has in addition alleged it was unlawful to put to death the insane (Ford v. Wainright, 1986), however it was lawful to put to death the mentally retarded (Penry v. Lynaugh, 1989) and it is unlawful to put to death an criminal who was 15 or younger when the crime was committed (Thompson v. Oklahoma, 1988), but the Constitution does not bar the capital punishment for 16-year-olds who commit murder (Stanford v. Kentucky, 1989). The court will certainly carry on refining its policy in the upcoming years. Public support for death penalty remains high. A 1994 Gallop poll found that 80% of Americans keep on supporting the death penalty in theory; though that figure had dropped to 62% by 2000 according to a NBC News poll. Justice is not at all times to be unwavering by view census and lawful pattern conversely. Individual have to think that the civil law of men ought to be hindered to a standard exterior of itself in order to decide if it is just or unfair. This is the natural law viewpoint. This viewpoint holds that the natural law is the groundwork of all human law in to the extent that it ordains that man shall survive in society, and society for its foundation requires the survival of an influence, which shall hold the moral power essential to organize the members and direct them to the widespread good. A full argument of the inside and obligations of the natural law is outside of the range of this thesis. On the other hand suffice it to say, according to this viewpoint, that human laws are legal and reasonable only in up to now as they communicate with, and put into effect or supplement the natural law; they are null and void when they conflict with it. The natural law is distinct as mans contribution in the heavenly law thru the light of natural reason. This means, certainly, that human law is resulting from an accepting of God. A dialogue of the novel understanding of separation of church and state that has evolved in the United States and somewhere else in the West more than the past 40 years is also exterior of the capacity of this thesis. As a reality of history the Western legal tradition is derived from Christian beliefs. The mass of theological conjecture is derived from the Catholic belief. Catholic religion and social philosophy rests on a chord of authority: 1) Sacred Scripture the canonical books of the Old and New Testaments 2) Sacred Tradition that which is always been taught and held to be factual whether on paper or unwritten 3) The Magisterium the teaching office the Church which consists of all the Bishops in the world in unity with the Pope in Rome. It is the Magisterium that is approved to understand Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, also called the Deposit of Faith, to address contemporary questions. The huge bulk of theological conjecture on the topic of capital punishment remains in the monarchy of confidentially held opinions which may be held or unnoticed according to the sense of right and wrong of the individual. Canon law forbids clergy to shed human blood and consequently the Church does not and has never carried out capital punishment. on the other hand, it has long been held that the state may utilize capital punishment. In the middle ages the Church was asked to occupy her know-how adjudicating crimes such as dissent and profanity. In these cases it was the only apprehension of the inquisitional body to decide the legitimacy of the offense charged, not to resolve or carry out the suitable punishment. The association among the modern Catholic Church and liberal democratic states is not as close as in the earlier period. The Church seeks to educate the faithful and to give confidence to them to contribute in the supporting life of the secular state. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, published in 1997, in paragraph 2267 states: Assuming that the guilty partys identity and responsibility have been fully determined, the traditional teaching of the Church does not exclude recourse to the death penalty, if this is the only possible way of effectively defending human lives against the unjust aggressor. If, however, non-lethal means are sufficient to defend and protect peoples safety from the aggressor, authority will limit itself to such means, as these are more in keeping with the concrete conditions of the common good and are more in conformity to the dignity of the human person. Today, in fact, as a consequence of the possibilities which the state has for effectively preventing crime, by rendering one who has committed an offense incapable of doing harm without definitely taking away from him the possibility of redeeming himself the cases in which the execution of the offender is an absolute necessity are very rare, if not practically non-existent. This is in fact a slight reformulation of the customary teaching; in this declaration it would appear that the lone explanation for capital punishment is explicit avoidance i.e. to get rid of the likelihood that a murderer will murder yet again. Preceding catechetical credentials such as the Baltimore Catechism, published in 1898 or the Roman Catechism published in 1566 make no bring up of capital punishment. Conventional Catholics are more liable to refer to the past writings of diverse theologians and Doctors of the Church which are constantly more constructive towards the utilizing of capital punishment. Avery Cardinal Dulles writing for the traditional Catholic periodical First Things summarized the whole of Catholic teaching on capital punishment in 10 points. 1) The purpose of punishment in secular courts is fourfold: the rehabilitation of the criminal, the protection of society from the criminal, the deterrence of other potential criminals, and retributive justice. 2) Just retribution, which seeks to establish the right order of things, should not be confused with vindictiveness, which is reprehensible. 3) Punishment may and should be administered with respect and love for the person punished. 4) The person who does evil may deserve death. According to the biblical accounts, God sometimes administers the penalty himself and sometimes directs others to do so. 5) Individuals and private groups may not take it upon themselves to inflict death as a penalty. 6) The State has the right, in principle, to inflict capital punishment in cases where there is no doubt about the gravity of the offense and the guilt of the accused. 7) The death penalty should not be imposed if the purposes of punishment can be equally well or better achieved by bloodless means, such as imprisonment. 8) The sentence of death may be improper if it has serious negative effects on society, such as miscarriages of justice, the increase of vindictiveness, or disrespect for the value of innocent human life. 9) Persons who specially represent the Church, such as clergy and religious, in view of their specific vocation, should abstain from pronouncing or executing the sentence of death. 10) Catholics, in seeking to form their judgment as to whether the death penalty is to be supported as a general policy, or in a given situation, should be attentive to the guidance of the pope and the bishops. Current Catholic teaching should be understood, as I have sought to understand it, in continuity with Scripture and tradition. In this observation the condition which is agreed upon its authority by God acts His agent and consequently possesses the authority to perform justice. In this thesis to address these following questions are chosen to be addressed concerning Death Penalty: 1) Is the capital punishment in itself neutrally morally wrong? 2) Does the state own the authority to make use of capital punishment? The answers to these questions can be: 1) No, Death penalty is not in itself morally wrong and is actually required to display the essential value of human life. 2) Yes, the state as a mediator of divine authority does own the authority to govern capital punishment for certain crimes. Certain questions arent addressed resulting from a useful viewpoint such as does the nuisance of the death penalty have a common prevention value. It could not be believed that issues suitably addressed from a practical viewpoint. The American justice structure frequently appears to function completely from this utilitarian perspective; this reflects the deep pressure of Jeremy Bentham who called death penalty useless annihilation. Agnostic utilitarian viewpoint regards death as the ultimate evil as a substitute of a stage on the way to eternal life. It can be agreed with Avery Cardinal Dulles when he states that While this change [the abolition of the death penalty in Europe] may be viewed as moral progress, it is probably due, in part, to the evaporation of the sense of sin, guilt, and retributive justice, all of which are essential to biblical religion and Catholic faith. The abolition of the death penalty in formerly Christian countries may owe more to secular humanism than to de eper penetration into the gospel. Work Cited Murdering Myths: The Story Behind the Death Penalty; by Judith W. Kay. The Death Penalty in America: Current Controversies; by Hugo Adam Bedau. ISBN: 9780195122862. Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA. The Complete Idiots Guide to The Supreme Court; by Lita Epstein, J.D. Ultimate Punishment: A Lawyers Reflections on Dealing with the Death Penalty; by attorney and author Scott Turow. Debating the Death Penalty: Should America Have Capital Punishment?; Edited by Hugo Bedau and Paul Cassel. Tears from Heaven: Voices from Hell; by Diane Robertson. ISBN: 9780595215720 Espy, M. Watt, and John Ortiz Smykla (2002) Executions in the United States, 1608-1987: The ESPY File, (online), 7/31/05. http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution.html Smith, Sharon C. (1999). Capital Punishment in the United States. (Online), 7/31/05. http://www.closeup.org/punish.html Quixote Center (N.D.). Equal Justice USA (Online), 7/31/05 http://www.quixote.org/ej/states/maryland/2003_bill_dies.html Aquinas, St. Thomas Summa Theologica II, Q) 95, a) 2 (online). Catholic Encyclopedia , 7/31/05. http://www.newadvent.org/summa/209502.html Aquinas, St. Thomas Summa Theologica II, Q) 91, a) 2 (online). Catholic Encyclopedia , 7/31/05. http://www.newadvent.org/summa/209102.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church (online), 7/31/05. http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/para/2267.htm United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (ND). USCCB Statement, 1980. (online) 7/31/05 http://www.usccb.org/sdwp/national/criminal/death/uscc80.htm Dulles, Avery (April 2001) Catholicism and Capital Punishment (online), 7/31/05. First Things 112: 30-35 http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft0104/articles/dulles.html Scalia, Antonin (May 2002). Gods Justice and Ours (online), 7/31/05 First Things 123:17-21. http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft0205/articles/scalia.html Kant, Immanuel (1965) The Metaphysical Elements of Justice New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co. Inc. Demetrius B. Zema Gerald G. Walsh trans., (1950).Augustine, The City of God Book I, ch. 21, reprinted in 8 The Fathers of the Church 17, 53 URL Citations http://www.infoplease.com/cig/supreme-court/death-penalty-cruel-unusual-punishment.html http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/Death_penalty http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,905684-2,00.html http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/books-death-penalty-critiques

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Tunnel Vision In Reading :: essays research papers

Reading involves translating symbols and letters into words or sentences. Anderson defines reading as a process of constructing meaning from a written text. We indulge in reading for many different purposes, be it survival, leisure or occupational. In a way, reading serves as a kind communication between the writer and the reader. The writer encodes what he or she wishes to convey while the reader decodes according to his or her own perception. Johnson quotes â€Å"A young man should read five hours in a day, and so may acquire a great deal of knowledge.† However, there as several problems which hinders the reading process, one of them being ‘tunnel vision’. This is a condition experienced by most readers especially beginners. This is because they lack ‘non visual information’ when trying to digest certain texts. Non visual information is what is stored in the brain, prior knowledge or specific information which will enable the brain to associate with whatever is received through the eyes thus bringing comprehension to the reader’s mind when reading a text. The inability of the brain to use this information due the over-load of visual information, will cause it to take more time to make decisions on what are seen. For example, a student unfamiliar with certain words in a purposely distorted text may have to take a few seconds longer to recognize them rather than familiar words which only require a single glance. Tunnel vision also occurs when readers are asked to read texts that are written in a language they do not know or a writing system they can’t discern. As there is no non-visual information what so ever in that particular language and writing system, they will not be able to read the text, let alone understand it. For example, a Malay student will have a serious problem if requested to read a passage in Russian! There are also cases when texts written in readers’ first language fails to enlightened them. This is because they have no prior knowledge on the ideas or facts written. A student majoring in Arts will have problem comprehending a text written on Chemical Engineering and vice versa. This inevitably causes ‘tunnel vision’ to resurface. They could go on reading till the last page of the text without understanding the content. Tunnel vision slows down the reading process, as readers are unable to identify or interpret any part of the text.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Tension in Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night Essay -- Do Not Go G

Tension in Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good   Night  Ã‚   Dylan Thomas’s poem "Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good   Night", is an urgent plea from Thomas to his dying father, and all men not to give in to death.   Thomas uses himself as the speaker to the make the poem more personal.   The message of the poem is very inspirational.   Throughout the poem, Thomas uses different imagery and language to illustrate the tension between action and inaction.   The first stanza helps summarizes the meaning of the poem, urging old men to fight death.   In the first stanza of the poem Thomas uses assonance, †Old age should burn and rave at close of day; / Rage, rage against the dying of the light.† (2-3) The use of age in the second line, and rage twice in the third depict assonance.   Here Thomas is trying to disprove the notion that old age is a time to rest, and a time to look back with wishful regrets on one’s experiences. The middle four stanzas are examples of various types of men, their trials of life and the whisper of death upon them.   In ...

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Colonialism and Imperialism in Heart of Darkness and A Passage to India

It is best to analyze the works, Heart of Darkness and A Passage to India, applying the historical and cultural conditions of the society in which they were produced. The relations between groups and classes of people that imperialism sets up, and that these two works explore, starkly reveals the contradictions within capitalism in a way that a similar piece of fiction set within one culture and dealing with characters from that culture alone cannot. Prior to the analysis however, I would like to give a brief, pertinent explanation of the Marxist approach to the analysis of literature and of the terms I will be using. After years of study and research, Karl Marx published the first volume of his monumental Das Kapital in 1867. In it Marx presents his theory of the materialist conception of history in which the economic base of a society gives rise to and interacts in a dialectical way with the societal superstructure of culture, law, religion and art. Among other things, Das Kapital traces the historical development of industrial capitalism as arising out of feudalism, predicts capitalism's further evolution, and sets forth theories of class structure and class struggle. It also critiques the methods by which industrial capitalism organizes the means of production so that capital and labor are separated and held by distinct and antagonistic groups within the society. This separation overwhelmingly benefits the holders of capital, politically and economically, to the corresponding detriment of those who sell their labor. Though this is by no means an adequate summary of Marx' ideas and contribution s, my aim is to provide this simple theoretical framework within which to focus on more particular elements of Marxist theory. Fo... ...ieve that imperial rule, if inevitable in the short run, was an inglorious enterprise that deformed both those who ruled and those who submitted" (153). I believe that Joseph Conrad and E. M. Forster were two such artists and that the two works in question reflected their growing awareness of imperialism as an "inglorious enterprise" whether this was consciously expressed by the author(s) or not. This study will also attempt to tease out the ways in which each work both supports and subverts the imperial mission and its ideology and I will also speculate to a certain extent as to how these contradictions in the works reflected contradictions in the society in which they were written. Works Cited: Conrad, James. Heart of Darkness and Other Tales. Great Britain, BPC paperbacks ltd. 1990. Forster, E.M. A Passage to India. Neew York: Harcourt Brace, 1984.

Monday, September 16, 2019

African American Women and Aids Essay

In the United States one of the leading causes of death for African American women is HIV/AIDS. This paper is on the African American women living in the United States with HIV/AIDS, how the health care policy affects them and the different stakeholders that are being affected by the health care policy. â€Å"HIV is the virus that causes AIDS† (2010). The virus weakens the body’s defense system, this makes it hard on the body to fight off other health problems and as time goes by the body becomes less able to fight off diseases. In the United States there was one in four new cases, which women account for and two in three are African American women who got HIV from unprotected sex with a man. African Americans women in 2009 accounted for 30% of the estimated new HIV infections among all African Americans. African American women were 15 time as high as the rate for white women for new HIV infections, and more than three times higher as that of Latina women (â€Å"HIV among African Americans,† 2011). Sexually transmitted infection (STIs) is another way that HIV is most commonly spread to women through sexual contact. African American women are known to have higher rates of STIs than any other race. Many African American women are known to have had sex with an African American man that was incarcerated at one time or another. These African American men in the community are known to cycle in and out of prison and have become risk factors for passing HIV on to African American woman. Other cases are African American men â€Å"on the down low† these are men who have sex with men and women. Many African American women are not aware of them because they do not identify themselves as gay or bisexual African American women that become pregnant also spread HIV to their unborn infant if they do not receive earlier in pregnancy treatments and prenatal care. A person can feel healthy and have HIV. There are steps to take for protection to stop the spread of HIV. This is by using latex condoms every time you have any type of sex. Also if you inject drugs do not share needles, syringes, or anything to inject the drug into you with anyone. By following these steps you can make the different in stopping the spread of HIV.

Cosmopolitanism and People Essay

The Internet is playing a very important role in the evolution of digital technology, but although it has seen remarkable growth over the last few years, its dispersion remains highly asymmetric. It is widely believed that the so called information age will bring radical change and improvement, and countries all over the world are busy with constructing the necessary infrastructure, the â€Å"information superhighways,† in order to meet the challenges of the information society of the twenty-first century. Kwame Anthony Appiah’s essay â€Å"Making Conversation† tell us about human’s conversation is better expressing themselves in person. Marshall Poe said in his article â€Å"The Hive† talks about the evolution of Wikipedia and how people are interacting online. The internet serves a purpose for research, schoolwork, and connections. However, the result from the internet age is loosing communication,lack of social interaction, and the unreliable nat ure of websites. First, Communication is key with success, however because of the internet age the ability to communicate face to face is dwindling.â€Å"Making Conversation† by Appiah is an idea on the expression cosmopolitanism and the feeling people in any nation have to take in order to achieve cosmopolitanism and globalization. Appiah wants to be citizen in the world not to separate by culture because people can learn each other different culture from other countries. Appiah said â€Å"One is the idea that we have obligations to others, obligations to others, obligations that stretch beyond those to whom we are related by the ties of kith and kind, or even the more formal ties of shared citizenship. The other is that we take seriously the value not just of human life but of particular human lives, which means taking an interest in the practices and beliefs that lend them significance† (Appiah 69). People learn from other cultures, with communication and with having an open mind. If People are closed off to new ideas from other cultures and we we will never grow. Communication is the  most important one topic because people communicate no matter what we need communication to express ourselves to others. Appiah said it is more important to communicate one another in person instead of using other networks. The conversation is the first important step to understand others. People of other cultures will then learn to accept the beliefs of others and by â€Å"changing our minds†, Appiah makes it clear that conversing with people does not often begin with agreeing on a set of principles, but rather exchanging our ideas and learning from another one. Eventhough, the internet can be helpful with education, it can also be unreliable. However, â€Å"The Hive† by Marchall Poe, was the openness of Wikipedia. Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that anyone can use it. This might work for some people specially that ones who attend school or college. This is very helpful for them because in Wikipedia you can search or find anything you would like. Since anyone can write, or delete or use information off of Wikipedia, it makes it less controversial because anyone can put their input into the website. If don’t agree with something, that’s alright because you can add your own opinion. Poe describes how authors of certain wiki pages write with a bias to support their facts. Facts become opinions when feelings and emotions of bias get involved. â€Å"Instead of relying on experts to write articles according to their expertise, Wikipedia lets anyone write about anything† (Poe 349). It means people are free to write whatever they want and they feel so others could see and write their opinions. This concept is important because it allows the author to give a good explanation on why this kind of group could work well with society. Wikipedia was created to help with learning. This is important because the people behind Wikipedia want us to learn more and to have better knowledge. The whole idea of Wikipedia is so people can post whatever they want and when they want. Every single day people are posting and reading others comments and having opinions. Wikipedia is so successful. Lastly, when working on a research project, using these websites can add some quick insight at hand. â€Å"The cathedral â€Å"and â€Å"The Bazaar† are the biggest difference between Nupedia and Wikipedia is how the information is edited. With Nupedia, people who would submit articles would have to wait for it to be published because it what is reviewed by editors. The process took loads of  time. People behind Wikipedia, can post something and it is reviewed by a never ending amount of people and therefore because of the sites popularity, posts can easily be weeded out. Nupedia was designed to be more professional and they tried to find knowledgeable scholars to oversee the site, and all the entries would be written by experts and those pieces would be read and revised by another group of scholars. Wikipedia is for anyone who wishes to add an article for something they specialize in. It could be something as simple as a definition or a more extensive article. They are posted and then other readers can edit the pieces if they discover incorrect information. This difference helps us understand why Poe named his subheadings the Cathedral and the Bazaar. A cathedral is very organized and has very district, intelligent leaders who oversee the operations. â€Å"There was simply no question in his mind that Nupedia would be Guided by a board of experts, that submissions would be largely written by experts, and that articles would be published only after extensive peer review† (353) This means only post that are actually true would be seen by an editor and be publish. Nupedia has very neat guidelines, and is overseen by professionals. A Bazaar, is much more casual and is usually a market that contains a large variety of items. Wikipedia has very few guidelines and has lots of types of information on millions of subjects. In summary, the result from the internet age is loosing communication,lack of social interaction, and the unreliable nature of websites. Wikipedia is helping the humanity to express their feeling and be seem by others and have opinions. Nupedia is seemed by experts where they can see if it’s true or not to be published. The information has to have credibility to be valid without sacrificing human interaction. Anthony Appiah. â€Å"Making Conversation. The Primacy of Practice.† Emerging: Contemporary Readings for Writers. Ed. Barclay Barrios, Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010. 66-82 Print. Poe, Marshall. â€Å"The Hive†. Emerging: Contemporary Readings for Writers. Ed. Barclay Barrios, Boston, MA: Bedford/ St. Martins, 2010. 349-363. Print.

Sunday, September 15, 2019

4 MAT Book Review Essay

Summary In Dr. H. Norman Wrights book â€Å"The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling: What to Do and Say when it Matters Most†, which was published in 2011 focuses on how to counsel those in a crisis situation. The book begins by Dr. Wright discussing his personal life story of dealing with loss, crisis, and trauma. His story is the foundation of the subject in how to counsel someone and knowing when to refer a person to someone with more experience. The book aims at helping those who are experiencing life’s daily struggles with biblical principles and to encourage the individual to persevere through the hard times. Dr. Wright’s strongest point in the reading is stating the ability to be a good counselor is to hold his or her tongue. He expresses the need of talking more than 25 percent of the time, you’re talking too much. Listening is a key component when communicating with others. Listening means your focusing and understanding the feelings of the person expressing their feelings. Dr. Wright discusses when you allow your mind to be busy, you’re not concentrating on what is being said. A good counselor will listen openly with their eyes, body and showing there empathy towards the crisis or trauma. The book then unfolds on demonstrating a strong understanding of the individual’s feelings and emotions. He empathizes that counselors should be aware of themselves before counseling others on any situation. Since Dr. Wright uses biblical passages as examples in ministering others, he recommends that ministers use Jesus as an example on treating a crisis or trauma victim. He teaches to ministers that once the advice is given, it cannot be taken back. The individual is going through a traumatic event and if the words aren’t chosen correctly, it could have a drastic impact on their life. Counseling those in need require one to provide the individual  with unconditional love and hope. Showing compassion towards the individual gives them strength to get through their past trauma or crisis. The book reminds counselors that a crisis can occur at any given moment in their client’s life. Dr. Wright acknowledges that ministers and other church personal will work with the same client plenty of times. Those in crisis situations can be in a devastating circumstances such as being diagnosed with cancer; which can reoccur and develop as time passes by. Another key component in the reading is the Crisis of Suicide. Ministering those who wish to commit suicide can be difficult. As these individuals need intervention right away because their life is at stake. Dr. Wright focuses on taking the initial help to keep the person alive and to help them gain insight on how he or she came to this current place. Ministering a suicidal individual is to simply be as much help as possible but to remember this person’s life is not on your shoulders (Wright, 2011). Dr. Wright focuses on the deaths one will encounter and how to deal with the loss of a loved one, friend or pet. He lets the reader know that deaths can be predictable, and eve expected but to know you will encounter one situation. Dr. Wrights tells when ministering the person in crisis, that you have to help the individual sort out his or her issues. Working with someone through the process of grieving takes the appropriate time to be addressed. He states how children cope through their losses in childhood, can potentially impact their lives as adults (Wright, 2011). Children experiencing a crisis need counseling immediately because they can become emotionally impaired. Overall Dr. Wright’s book is providing the best advice to minsters, counselors and lay counselors. His book is very detailed on providing the best advice to those in any kind of crisis, trauma or loss. It is a must read book! Concrete Responses Dr. Wright’s book reminds me of a personal life episode I went through years ago. The chapter that caught my attention was Chapter 14 â€Å"The Crisis of Suicide†. It proved to be a story telling chapter for my own personal life. I never in my life imagined that I would go through something traumatic as suicide. I say that because I am a very happy person but sometimes even the happiest person is also hurting on the inside. I remember the day and time  when the whole scenario occurred. I was home alone and very distraught with where my life was headed. I was in a mentally draining relationship and I felt absolutely low of myself. This was rare for me because I am a very outgoing individual, who barely cares about what others think about me. I was feeling excessively lonely, angry, tired, misused and drained from my current situation. It was like I felt all these emotions at once but nothing I would do could ease the pain. Suicide played in my mind all the time in this difficult period. Death seem so much easier to deal with but I was terribly wrong. I remember talking to my father before he passed and told him my intentions of not wanting to live anymore. My dad was very hurt by my words but at that moment I didn’t really care what others thought. I recall when he sat me down and asked me why I would want to end my life at such a young age. My mind wasn’t mentally prepared for that question because all I could think about was not being here anymore. I never gave him the answers, I just wanted to end the hurt and pain. I couldn’t tell him I wanted to kill myself over a boyfriend. He would have looked at me in such a daze and probably would have been confused by my actions. My father never really liked my boyfriend from the beginning so to lose his daughter over him would be heartbreaking. In the reading, Dr. Wright states that a person who wants to commit suicide sees it as their only solution and that those around should help the individual to discover other solutions (Wright, 2011). As I begin to think back on this encounter, I never had another solution to help me with my problems. Dr. Wright focuses on how suicide hides behind many faces. This is beyond true because you can never judge a book by its cover. Even the happiest individuals are suffering. Depression is a key factor when it comes to suicide. As I went through my daily schedule, I pretended to be just fine but I wasn’t. If I never had that conversation with my father, I probably would have ended my own life. It’s amazing how life works because it made me think should I end my life over a boy? Are my issues that severe that I want to die? Dr. Wright explains how suicide is waiting to happen and that you don’t recognize it because the individual has repress their depressive symptoms into rage (Wright, 2011). I enjoyed reading about how to deal with the crisis of suicide because everything he stated, I replayed in my mind and gained insight on how far I have come. Reflection Dr. Wright’s book showed me how to handle any crisis situation. His book discussed a variety of crisis situations and how you can approach the individual in need. It is not easy to minster or counsel someone, so to have read Dr. Wright’s book gave me great insight for my future. I strongly agreed on his discussion about listening and being quiet while the individual is speaking. This is imperative because you can’t fully understand the person speaking if your consuming thoughts while their talking. This area is something I am working on because although I don’t mean to do it I find myself brainstorming as the individual is speaking. As I read on, Dr. Wright states how you are not really listening to person who is speaking. As I began to read, certain questions came across my mind. I asked myself, â€Å"What would information would I like to further on†? I started with this question because after reading, I realized I grew attached with counseling ch ildren and adolescents. Children go through numerous amounts of grief and trauma. Since they are continuing to grow, they hold onto their grief differently than adults. I would have liked to see how the crisis of suicide intertwines with children. As suicide is continuing to grow in the United States. I would have liked to seen more on the younger age to counsel them. Counseling children is very complex but when you include suicide, I would of liked to seen how to counsel children when there contemplating suicide. Teenagers are committing suicide more often now due to social media and bullying. Not all teens will speak of suicide but for the ones who do, I would like to see how to discuss this topic with them. In the reading it did discuss how to help a suicidal individual but I feel like working with a child or adolescent should be communicated differently. What challenged me in this content was reading chapter 10, â€Å"When Time Doesn’t Heal All Wounds†. This chapter speaks volumes for my own life because we all go through something. I often wonder how I can assist someone if I don’t heal my own wounds. This chapter opened my eyes as to what trauma really is and how it has affected my own personal life. I agree strongly with Dr. Wright on how it affects who we are. Another limitation that I would have liked to have seen is how to deal with confrontation in a biblical perspective. Dr. Wright discusses using empathy and other skill behaviors related to the word of God but what about when confrontation individual in helping them make better choices. I think it’s important to know how to confront clients and being  able to determine the correct time for a confrontation. Application The most crucial element after reading this amazing book is learning to incorporate this material into your daily life. Helping others in difficult times is my greatest mission in life. I am committed to helping those entering any crisis stage of their life. It is important to be able to comprehend visually and to be helpful to those in any crisis state of mind. I love how Dr. Wright uses biblical passages and verses within his counseling skills. This is a great way to help minister your clients effectively. I learned that when ministering it is vital to remember the root in the work of serving others, God’s word. The compassion in helping those is the greatest ability one can have. A key area I want to work on is ministering to children. Children need all the tender love and care when there is a loss, crisis or trauma situation. It can be a scary point, and I want to take the words from Dr. Wright to assist them effectively. Talking to children is completely different then ta lking to an adult. Children perceive information differently than adults do. They grieve in a different manner as well. Dr. Wright taught me it is critical to communicate with a child because it helps to solve many issues. This will be excellent for my personal growth in aiding those children who need help. Children have a harder time but so do adolescents. When adolescents transition into a teenager this can be tough when a loss has occurs. I believe dealing with adolescents is tougher then young children because not many teenagers want to converse with you. There more hesitant and indirect with their responses. This book influence my personal growth with teenagers as well because teenagers are reluctant to talk to a counselor or minister. When it comes to my life, I plan to make initial changes. I want to communicate effectively when counseling those in a crisis or trauma need. Dr. Wright’s book taught me to listen so I can understand what the individual is saying to me. I want to take the time to learn who I am so I can help those suffering. My task is to help others, and I want the individual seeking help to believe I can encourage them to change and have faith in them. One thing I tend to do is be afraid. Mark 5:36 tell us to not be afraid just believe. I believe I can make the initial improvements in my words and how I speak to those in need to give them a proper perspective. I plan to be quiet and  clear my thoughts when someone is telling me their problem. Listening means that I am trying to understand the feelings of the other person speaking (Wright, 2011). As I continue to read, I am influenced by his biblical passages integrated into his concepts. I am a genuine person but sometimes I don’t know how to speak to those when there grieving. It’s kind of weird because I love helping others but sometimes I am at lost for words. I want to continue to work on when saying the right words in a right manner. When an individual is in a crisis, the way one speaks sets the tone on how the person takes the information. I just want to continue to lead people to Christ and help those suffering with grief in their life. By making changings in my life through Dr. Wright’s book, I can integrate the Word of God and assist individuals in having a healthy life. It is vital to make the person feel safe and build trust. Reference Wright, H. Norman (2011). The Complete Guide to Crisis & Trauma Counseling: What to Do and Say When It Matters Most! (p. 251). Baker Publishing Group. Kindle Edition.

Saturday, September 14, 2019

Varying Definitions of Online Communication

Running head: VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 1 The title should summarize the paper’s main idea and identify the variables under discussion and the relationship between them. The title should be centered on the page, typed in 12point Times New Roman Font. It should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized. Varying Definitions of Online Communication and Their Effects on Relationship Research Elizabeth L. Angeli The author’s name and institution should be doublespaced and centered. The running head is a shortened version of the paper’s full title, and it is used to help readers identify the titles for published articles (even if your paper is not intended for publication, your paper should still have a running head). The running head cannot exceed 50 characters, including spaces and punctuation. The running head’s title should be in capital letters. The running head should be flush left, and page numbers should be flush right. On the title page, the running head should include the words â€Å"Running head. † For pages following the title page, repeat the running head in all caps without â€Å"Running head. Purdue University Blue boxes contain directions for writing and citing in APA style. Green text boxes contain explanations of APA style guidelines. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION Abstract The abstract is a brief summary of the paper, allowing readers to quickly review the main points and purpose of the paper. The abstract sh ould be between 150-250 words. Abbreviations and acronyms used in the paper should be defined in the abstract. 2 The word â€Å"Abstract† should be centered and typed in 12 point Times New Roman. Do not indent the first line of the abstract paragraph. All other paragraphs in the paper should be indented. This paper explores four published articles that report on results from research conducted on online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships and their relationship to computer-mediated communication (CMC). The articles, however, vary in their definitions and uses of CMC. Butler and Kraut (2002) suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective than CMC, defined and used as â€Å"email,† in creating feelings of closeness or intimacy. Other articles define CMC differently and, therefore, offer different results. This paper examines Cummings et al. s research in relation to three other research articles to suggest that all forms of CMC should be studied in order to fully understand how CMC influences online and offline relationships. Keywords: computer-mediated communication, face-to-face communication VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION Online Communication Definitions Effect on Relationship Research 3 The title of the paper is centered and not bolded. Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of Internet relationships, The introduction presents the problem that the paper addresses. See the OWL resources on introductions: http://owl. en glish. purdue. du/owl/resou rce/724/01/ focusing on the levels of intimacy, closeness, different communication modalities, and the frequency of use of CMC. However, contradictory results are suggested within this research mostly because only certain aspects of CMC are investigated, for example, email only. Cummings, Butler, and Kraut (2002) suggest that FtF interactions are more effective than CMC (read: email) in creating feelings of closeness or intimacy, while other studies suggest the opposite. In order to understand how both online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships are affected by CMC, all forms of CMC should be studied. This paper examines Cummings et al. ’s research against other CMC research to propose that additional research be conducted to better understand how online communication effects relationships. If an article has three to five authors, write out all of the authors’ names the first time they appear. Then use the first author’s last name followed by â€Å"et al. † In-text citations include the author’s/ authors’ name/s and the publication year. The publication year and the not page number is used, because APA users are concerned with the date of the article (the more current the better). In Cummings et al. ’s (2002) summary article reviewing three empirical studies on online social relationships, it was found that CMC, especially email, was less effective than FtF contact in creating and maintaining close social relationships. Two of the three reviewed studies focusing on communication in non-Internet and Internet relationships mediated by FtF, phone, or email modalities found that the frequency of each modality’s use was significantly linked to the strength of the particular relationship (Cummings et al. , 2002). The strength of the relationship was predicted best by FtF and phone communication, as participants rated email as an inferior means of maintaining personal relationships as compared to FtF and phone contacts (Cummings et al. , 2002). VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed an additional study conducted in 1999 by the 4 HomeNet project. In this project, Kraut, Mukhopadhyay, Szczypula, Kiesler, and Scherlis (1999) compared the value of using CMC and non-CMC to maintain relationships with partners. They found that participants corresponded less frequently with their Internet partner (5. 2 times per month) than with their non-Internet partner (7. 2 times per month) (as cited in Cummings et al. , 2002). This difference does not seem significant, as it is only two times less per month. However, in additional self-report surveys, participants responded feeling more distant, or less intimate, towards their Internet partner than their non-Internet partner. This finding may be attributed to participants’ beliefs that email is an inferior mode of personal relationship communication. Intimacy is necessary in the creation and maintenance of relationships, as it is defined as the sharing of a person’s innermost being with another person, i. e. , selfdisclosure (Hu, Wood, Smith, & Westbrook, 2004). Relationships are facilitated by the reciprocal self-disclosing between partners, regardless of non-CMC or CMC. Cummings et al. ’s (2002) reviewed results contradict other studies that research the connection between intimacy and relationships through CMC. Hu et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the frequency of Instant Messenger (IM) use and the degree of perceived intimacy among friends. The use of IM instead of email as a CMC modality was studied because IM supports a non-professional environment favoring intimate exchanges (Hu et al. , 2004). Their results suggest that a positive relationship exists between the frequency of IM use and intimacy, demonstrating Use two spaces after a period throughout your paper. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION that participants feel closer to their Internet partner as time progresses through this CMC modality. Similarly, Underwood and Findlay (2004) studied the effect of Internet relationships on primary, specifically non-Internet relationships and the perceived intimacy of both. In this study, self-disclosure, or intimacy, was measured in terms of shared secrets through the discussion of personal problems. Participants reported a significantly higher level of self-disclosure in their Internet relationship as compared to their primary relationship. In contrast, the participants’ primary relationships were reported as highly self-disclosed in the past, but the current level of disclosure was perceived to be lower (Underwood & Findlay, 2004). This result suggests participants turned to the Internet in order to fulfill the need for intimacy in their lives. In further support of this finding, Tidwell and Walther (2002) hypothesized CMC participants employ deeper self-disclosures than FtF participants in order to overcome the limitations of CMC, e. g. , the reliance on nonverbal cues. It was found that CMC partners engaged in more frequent intimate questions and disclosures than FtF partners in order to overcome the barriers of CMC. In their study, Tidwell and Walther (2002) measured the perception of a relationship’s intimacy by the partner of each participant in both the CMC and FtF conditions. The researchers found that the participants’ partners stated their CMC partner was more effective in employing more intimate exchanges than their FtF partner, and both participants and their partners rated their CMC relationship as more intimate than their FtF relationship. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION A Level 1 heading should be flush left and bolded. If you use more than two levels of headings, consult section 3. 02 of the APA manual (6th ed. ) or the OWL resource on APA headings: http://owl. english. pur due. edu/ow l/resource/ 560/16/ 6 Discussion In 2002, Cummings et al. tated that the evidence from their research conflicted with other data examining the effectiveness of online social relationships. This statement is supported by the aforementioned discussion of other research. There may be a few possible theoretical explanations for these discrepancies. First, one reviewed study by Cummings et al. (2002) examined only email correspondence for their CMC mod ality. Therefore, the study is limited to only one mode of communication among other alternatives, e. g. , IM as studied by Hu et al. (2004). Because of its many personalized features, IM provides more personal CMC. For example, it is in real time without delay, voice-chat and video features are available for many IM programs, and text boxes can be personalized with the user’s picture, favorite colors and text, and a wide variety of Because all research has its limitations, it is important to discuss the limitations of articles under examination. emoticons, e. g. , :). These options allow for both an increase in self-expression and the ability to overcompensate for the barriers of CMC through customizable features, as stated in Tidwell and Walther (2002). Self-disclosure and intimacy may result from IM’s individualized features, which are not as personalized in email correspondence. In addition to the limitations of email, Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed studies that focused on international bank employees and college students. It is possible the participants’ CMC through email was used primarily for business, professional, and school matters and not for relationship creation or maintenance. In this case, personal self-disclosure and intimacy levels are expected to be lower for non-relationship interactions, as this communication is primarily between boss and employee or student VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION and professor. Intimacy is not required, or even desired, for these professional relationships. Instead of professional correspondence, however, Cummings et al. ’s (2002) review of the HomeNet project focused on already established relationships and CMC’s 7 effect on relationship maintenance. The HomeNet researchers’ sole dependence on email communication as CMC may have contributed to the lower levels of intimacy and closeness among Internet relationships as compared to non-Internet relationships (as cited in Cummings et al. , 2002). The barriers of non-personal communication in email could be a factor in this project, and this could lead to less intimacy among these Internet partners. If alternate modalities of CMC were studied in both already established and professional relationships, perhaps these results would have resembled those of the previously mentioned research. In order to gain a complete understanding of CMC’s true effect on both online and offline relationships, it is necessary to conduct a study that examines all aspects of CMC. This includes, but is not limited to, email, IM, voice-chat, video-chat, online ournals and diaries, online social groups with message boards, and chat rooms. The effects on relationships of each modality may be different, and this is demonstrated by the discrepancies in intimacy between email and IM correspondence. As each mode of communication becomes more prevalent in individual’s lives, it is important to examine the impact of all modes of CMC on online an d offline relationship formation, maintenance, and even termination. The conclusion restates the problem the paper addresses and can offer areas for further research. See the OWL resource on conclusions: http://owl. english. pur due. edu/ow l/resource/ 724/04/ VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION References Cummings, J. N. , Butler, B. , & Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of online social relationships. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108. Hu, Y. , Wood, J. F. , Smith, V. , & Westbrook, N. (2004). Friendships through IM: Examining the relationship between instant messaging and intimacy. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10(1), 38-48. Tidwell, L. C. , & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28(3), 317-348. 8 Underwood, H. , & Findlay, B. (2004). Internet relationships and their impact on primary relationships. Behaviour Change, 21(2), 127-140. Start the reference list on a new page, center the title â€Å"References,† and alphabetize the entries. Do not underline or italicize the title. Double-space all entries. Every article mentioned in the paper should have an entry.